Taiwanese Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology
Volume 46, Issue 4 , Pages 352-362, December 2007

Human Papillomavirus and Vaccination in Cervical Cancer

  • Kung-Liahng Wang

      Affiliations

    • Corresponding Author InformationCorrespondence to: Dr Kung-Liahng Wang, Director of the Division of Gynecologic Oncology, Department of Obstetrics and Gyne-cology, Mackay Memorial Hospital, 92, Section 2, Chung-Shan North Road, Taipei, Taiwan

Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Mackay Memorial Hospital, National Taipei College of Nursing, and Mackay Medicine, Nursing and Management College, Taipei, Taiwan

Accepted 14 September 2007.

Article Outline

SUMMARY 

Cervical cancer is not only the most frequently reported cancer among women, but also the most common female genital tract neoplasm in Taiwan. Early detection is effective, because the development, maintenance and progression of precursor lesions (cervical intraepithelial neoplasia [CIN]) evolve slowly into invasive cancer, typically over a period of more than 10 years. It is now recognized that human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is a necessary cause for over 99% of cervical cancer cases. Advances in the understanding of the causative role of HPV in the etiology of high-grade cervical lesions (CIN 2/3) and cervical cancer have led to the development, evaluation and recommendation of HPV-based technologies for cervical cancer prevention and control. The prevention of HPV infection before the onset of CIN is now possible with recently available prophylactic HPV vaccines, e.g. the quadrivalent Gardasil (Merck & Co., NJ, USA) and bivalent Cervarix (GlaxoSmithKline, London, UK). This review article provides an up-to-date summary of recent studies and available information concerning HPV and vaccination in cervical cancer.

Key Words:  Cervarix , cervical cancer , Gardasil , human papillomavirus , HPV , vaccines , virus-like particle vaccines

No full text is available. To read the body of this article, please view the PDF online.

 

Back to Article Outline

References 

  1. Bosch FX , Manos MM , Munoz N , et al.   Prevalence of human papillomavirus in cervical cancer: a worldwide perspective. International Biological Study on Cervical Cancer (IBSCC) Study Group . J Natl Cancer Inst . 1995;87:796–802
  2. Parkin DM , Bray F , Ferlay J , Pisani P . Global cancer statistics, 2002 . CA Cancer J Clin . 2005;55:74–108
  3. Wang PD , Lin RS . Epidemiology of cervical cancer in Taiwan . Gynecol Oncol . 1996;62:344–352
  4. Lai MY , Chou P . Effectiveness of screening for cervical cancer in Taiwan. A case-control study . Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi (Taipei) . 1992;49:81–85 [In Chinese]
  5. Bureau of Health Promotion  , Department of Health, Taiwan  . The Annual Decrease in Incidence and Mortality Rates of Cervical Cancer in Taiwan [in Chinese] . Available at: http://www.bhp.doh.gov.tw/asp/themeParkId=510/960305/pdf/951116.pdf [Date accessed: 22 March 2007]
  6. Renshaw AA, Mody DR, Lozano RL, Volk EE, Walsh MK, Davey DD, et al. Detection of adenocarcinoma in situ of the cervix in Papanicolaou tests: comparison of diagnostic accuracy with other high-grade lesions . Arch Pathol Lab Med . 2004;128:153–157
  7. Walboomers JM , Jacobs MV , Manos MM , et al.   Human papillomavirus is a necessary cause of invasive cervical cancer worldwide . J Pathol . 1999;189:12–19
  8. Bosch FX , Lorincz A , Munoz N , Meijer CJ , Shah KV . The causal relation between human papillomavirus and cervical cancer . J Clin Pathol . 2002;55:244–265
  9. Nobbenhuis MA , Walboomers JM , Helmerhorst TJ , et al.   Relation of human papillomavirus status to cervical lesions and consequences for cervical-cancer screening: a prospective study . Lancet . 1999;354:20–25
  10. Jacobs MV , Zielinski D , Meijer CJ , et al.   A simplified and reliable HPV testing of archival Papanicolaou-stained cervical smears: application to cervical smears from cancer patients starting with cytologically normal smears . Br J Cancer . 2000;82:1421–1426
  11. Castle PE , Wacholder S , Lorincz AT , et al.   A prospective study of high-grade cervical neoplasia risk among human papillomavirus-infected women . J Natl Cancer Inst . 2002;94:1406–1414
  12. Bosch FX , de Sanjose S . Chapter 1: Human papillomavirus and cervical cancer—burden and assessment of causality . J Natl Cancer Inst Monogr . 2003;3–13
  13. Cates W . Estimates of the incidence and prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases in the United States. American Social Health Association Panel . Sex Transm Dis . 1999;26(4 Suppl):S2–S7
  14. Weinstock H , Berman S , Cates W . Sexually transmitted diseases among American youth: incidence and prevalence estimates, 2000 . Perspect Sex Reprod Health . 2004;36:6–10
  15. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention  . Genital HPV infection factsheet . Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/std/HPV/STDFact-HPV.htm [Date accessed: 21 March 2007]
  16. Bernard HU . Phylogeny and taxonomy of papillomaviruses . In:  Campo MS editors. Papillomavirus Research: From Natural History to Vaccines and Beyond . Norfolk, UK: Caister Academic Press; 2006;p. 11–17
  17. de Villiers EM , Fauquet C , Broker TR , Bernard HU , zur Hausen H . Classification of papillomaviruses . Virology . 2004;324:17–27
  18. Sundberg JP , Van Ranst M , Burk RD , Jenson AB . The nonhuman (animal) papillomaviruses: host range, epitope conservation, and molecular diversity . In:  Gross G ,  von Krogh G editor. Human Papillomavirus Infections in Dermato-venereology . Boca Raton: CRC Press; 1997;p. 47–68
  19. Sundberg JP , Van Ranst M , Van Ranst Montali R , et al.   Feline papil-lomas and papillomaviruses . Vet Pathol . 2000;37:1–10
  20. Tachezy R , Rector A , Havelkova M , et al.   Avian papillo-maviruses: the parrot Psittacus erithacus papillomavirus (PePV) genome has a unique organization of the early protein region and is phylogenetically related to the chaffinch papillomavirus . BMC Microbiol . 2002;2:19
  21. Orth G , Jablonska S , Breitburd F , Favre M , Croissant O . The human papillomaviruses . Bull Cancer . 1978;65:151–164
  22. Howley PM . Papillomaviridae: the viruses and their replication . In:  Fields BN ,  Knipe DM ,  Howley PM editor. Fields Virology . Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven; 1996;p. 2045–2076
  23. Baker CC , Phelps WC , Lindgren V , Braun MJ , Gonda MA , Howley PM . Structural and transcriptional analysis of human papillomavirus type 16 sequences in cervical carcinoma cell lines . J Virol . 1987;61:962–967
  24. Bryan JT , Brown DR . Transmission of human papillomavirus type 11 infection by desquamated cornified cells . Virology . 2001;281:35–42
  25. Sedman SA, Barbosa MS, Vass WC, Hubbert NL, Haas JA, Lowy DR, et al. The full-length E6 protein of human papillomavirus type 16 has transforming and trans-activating activities and cooperates with E7 to immortalize keratinocytes in culture . J Virol . 1991;65:4860–4866
  26. von Knebel Doeberitz M , Oltersdorf T , Schwarz E , Gissmann L . Correlation of modified human papilloma virus early gene expression with altered growth properties in C4-1 cervical carcinoma cells . Cancer Res . 1988;48:3780–3786
  27. Munger K , Howley PM . Human papillomavirus immortalization and transformation functions . Virus Res . 2002;89:213–228
  28. Davey DD . Cervical cytology classification and the Bethesda System . Cancer J . 2003;9:327–334
  29. Auvinen E , Crusius K , Steuer B , Alonso A . Human papillo-mavirus type 16 E5 protein . Int J Oncol . 1997;11:1297–1304
  30. Doorbar J . The papillomavirus life cycle . J Clin Virol . 2005;32(Suppl 1):S7–S15
  31. Gillison ML , Shah KV . Chapter 9: Role of mucosal human papillomavirus in nongenital cancers . J Natl Cancer Inst Monogr . 2003;57–65
  32. The Atypical Squamous Cells of Undetermined Significance/Low-grade Squamous Intraepithelial Lesions Triage Study (ALTS) Group  . Human papillomavirus testing for triage of women with cytologic evidence of low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions: baseline data from a randomized trial . J Natl Cancer Inst . 2000;92:397–402
  33. Manos MM , Kinney WK , Hurley LB , et al.   Identifying women with cervical neoplasia: using human papillomavirus DNA testing for equivocal Papanicolaou results . JAMA . 1999;281:1605–1610
  34. Schlecht NF , Kulaga S , Robitaille J , et al.   Persistent human papillomavirus infection as a predictor of cervical intraep-ithelial neoplasia . JAMA . 2001;286:3106–3114
  35. Ho GY , Bierman R , Beardsley L , Chang CJ , Burk RD . Natural history of cervicovaginal papillomavirus infection in young women . N Engl J Med . 1998;338:423–428
  36. Moscicki AB , Hills N , Shiboski S , et al.   Risks for incident human papillomavirus infection and low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion development in young females . JAMA . 2001;285:2995–3002
  37. Franco EL, Villa LL, Sobrinho JP, Prado JM, Rousseau MC, Desy M, et al. Epidemiology of acquisition and clearance of cervical human papillomavirus infection in women from a high-risk area for cervical cancer . J Infect Dis . 1999;180:1415–1423
  38. Likes WM , Itano J . Human papillomavirus and cervical cancer: not just a sexually transmitted disease . Clin J Oncol Nurs . 2003;7:271–276
  39. Bernard HU . The clinical importance of the nomenclature, evolution and taxonomy of human papillomaviruses . J Clin Virol . 2005;32(Suppl 1):S1–S6
  40. Munoz N , Bosch FX , de Sanjose S , et al.   Epidemiologic classification of human papillomavirus types associated with cervical cancer . N Engl J Med . 2003;348:518–527
  41. Kreimer AR , Clifford GM , Boyle P , Franceschi S . Human papillomavirus types in head and neck squamous cell carcinomas worldwide: a systematic review . Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev . 2005;14:467–475
  42. Clifford GM , Smith JS , Aguado T , Franceschi S . Comparison of HPV type distribution in high-grade cervical lesions and cervical cancer: a meta-analysis . Br J Cancer . 2003;89:101–105
  43. Clifford GM , Smith JS , Plummer M , Munoz N , Franceschi S . Human papillomavirus types in invasive cervical cancer worldwide: a meta-analysis . Br J Cancer . 2003;88:63–73
  44. Chan PK, Mak KH, Cheung JLK, Tang NL, Chan DP, Lo KK, et al. Genotype spectrum of cervical human papillo-mavirus infection among sexually transmitted disease clinic patients in Hong Kong . J Med Virol . 2002;68:273–277
  45. Bauer HM , Ting Y , Greer CE , et al.   Genital human papillo-mavirus infection in female university students as determined by a PCR-based method . JAMA . 1991;265:472–477
  46. Moscicki AB . Impact of HPV infection in adolescent populations . J Adolesc Health . 2005;37(6 Suppl):S3–S9
  47. Ley C, Bauer HM, Reingold A, Schiffman MH, Chambers JC, Tashiro CJ, et al. Determinants of genital human papillomavirus infection in young women . J Natl Cancer Inst . 1991;83:997–1003
  48. Collins S, Mazloomzadeh S, Winter H, Blomfield P, Bailey A, Young LS, et al. High incidence of cervical human papillomavirus infection in women during their first sexual relationship . BJOG . 2002;109:96–98
  49. Palefsky JM . Cervical human papillomavirus infection and cervical intraepithelial neoplasia in women positive for human immunodeficiency virus in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy . Curr Opin Oncol . 2003;15:382–388
  50. Koskela P , Anttila T , Bjorge T , et al.   Chlamydia trachomatis infection as a risk factor for invasive cervical cancer . Int J Cancer . 2000;85:35–39
  51. Hagensee ME , Cameron JE , Leigh JE , Clark RA . Human papil-lomavirus infection and disease in HIV-infected individuals . Am J Med Sci . 2004;328:57–63
  52. Heard I . Cervical disease and cancer in HIV positive women. Recommendations for screening and diagnosis . Med Wieku Rozwoj . 2003;7:479–485
  53. Branca M , Garbuglia AR , Benedetto A , et al.   Factors predicting the persistence of genital human papillomavirus infections and PAP smear abnormality in HIV-positive and HIV-negative women during prospective follow-up . Int J STD AIDS . 2003;14:417–425
  54. Conti M, Agarossi A, Parazzini F, Muggiasca ML, Boschini A, Negri E, et al. HPV, HIV infection, and risk of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia in former intravenous drug abusers . Gynecol Oncol . 1993;49:344–348
  55. Winer RL , Lee SK , Hughes JP , Adam DE , Kiviat NB , Koutsky LA . Genital human papillomavirus infection: incidence and risk factors in a cohort of female university students . Am J Epidemiol . 2003;157:218–226
  56. Brown DR , Shew ML , Qadadri B , et al.   A longitudinal study of genital human papillomavirus infection in a cohort of closely followed adolescent women . J Infect Dis . 2005;191:182–192
  57. Revzina NV , Diclemente RJ . Prevalence and incidence of human papillomavirus infection in women in the USA: a systematic review . Int J STD AIDS . 2005;16:528–537
  58. Castle PE , Schiffman M , Herrero R , et al.   A prospective study of age trends in cervical human papillomavirus acquisition and persistence in Guanacaste, Costa Rica . J Infect Dis . 2005;191:1808–1816
  59. Kotloff KL , Wasserman SS , Russ K , et al.   Detection of genital human papillomavirus and associated cytological abnormalities among college women . Sex Transm Dis . 1998;25:243–250
  60. Damasus-Awatai G , Freeman-Wang T . Human papilloma virus and cervical screening . Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol . 2003;15:473–477
  61. Dunne EF , Markowitz LE . Genital human papillomavirus infection . Clin Infect Dis . 2006;43:624–629
  62. Molano M , Van den Brule A , Plummer M , et al.   Determinants of clearance of human papillomavirus infections in Colombian women with normal cytology: a population-based, 5-year follow-up study . Am J Epidemiol . 2003;158:486–494
  63. Ho GY , Burk RD , Klein S , et al.   Persistent genital human papillomavirus infection as a risk factor for persistent cervical dysplasia . J Natl Cancer Inst . 1995;87:1365–1371
  64. Moore MA , Tajima K . Cervical cancer in the Asian Pacific: epidemiology, screening and treatment . Asian Pac J Cancer Prev . 2004;5:349–361
  65. Baseman JG , Koutsky LA . The epidemiology of human papil-lomavirus infections . J Clin Virol . 2005;32(Suppl 1):S16–S24
  66. Trottier H , Franco EL . The epidemiology of genital human papillomavirus infection . Vaccine . 2006;24(Suppl 1):S1–S15
  67. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention  . Report to Congress: prevention of genital human papillomavirus infection . Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/std/HPV/2004HPVReport.pdf [Date accessed: 9 February 2005]
  68. Christopher A . Hearing addresses condoms for HPV prevention . J Natl Cancer Inst . 2004;96:985
  69. Frega A, Cenci M, Stentella P, Cipriano L, De Ioris A, Alderisio M, et al. Human papillomavirus in virgins and behaviour at risk . Cancer Lett . 2003;194:21–24
  70. Frasier LD . Human papillomavirus infections in children . Pediatr Ann . 1994;23:354–360
  71. Plummer M , Herrero R , Franceschi S , et al.   Smoking and cervical cancer: pooled analysis of the IARC multi-centric case-control study . Cancer Causes Control . 2003;14:805–814
  72. Magnusson PK , Gyllensten UB . Cervical cancer risk: is there a genetic component? . Mol Med Today . 2000;6:145–148
  73. Magnusson PK , Sparen P , Gyllensten UB . Genetic link to cervical tumours . Nature . 1999;400:29–30
  74. Kreider JW, Howett MK, Wolfe SA, Bartlett GL, Zaino RJ, Sedlacek T, et al. Morphological transformation in vivo of human uterine cervix with papillomavirus from condylo-mata acuminata . Nature . 1985;317:639–641
  75. Kreider JW , Howett MK , Leure-Dupree AE , Zaino RJ , Weber JA . Laboratory production in vivo of infectious human papillomavirus type 11 . J Virol . 1987;61:590–593
  76. Bonnez W , Rose RC , Da Rin C , Borkhuis C , de Mesy Jensen KL , Reichman RC . Propagation of human papillo-mavirus type 11 in human xenografts using the severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) mouse and comparison to the nude mouse model . Virology . 1993;197:455–458
  77. Meyers C , Frattini MG , Hudson JB , Laimins LA . Biosynthesis of human papillomavirus from a continuous cell line upon epithelial differentiation . Science . 1992;257:971–973
  78. Dillner J . The serological response to papillomaviruses . Semin Cancer Biol . 1999;9:423–430
  79. Carter JJ, Koutsky LA, Hughes JP, Lee SK, Kuypers J, Kiviat N, et al. Comparison of human papillomavirus types 16, 18, and 6 capsid antibody responses following incident infection . J Infect Dis . 2000;181:1911–1919
  80. Carter JJ , Madeleine MM , Shera K , et al.   Human papillo-mavirus 16 and 18 L1 serology compared across anogeni-tal cancer sites . Cancer Res . 2001;61:1934–1940
  81. Sharma D . Paper smear method for rapid HPV testing . Lancet Oncol . 2002;3:454
  82. US Food and Drug Administration  . New device approval: Digene Hybrid Capture 2 High-Risk HPV DNA Test—P890064 S009 A004 . Available at: http://www.fda.gov/cdrh/mda/docs/p890064s009.html [Date accessed: 5 Aug 2007]
  83. Molijn A , Kleter B , Quint W , van Doorn LJ . Molecular diagnosis of human papillomavirus (HPV) infections . J Clin Virol . 2005;32(Suppl 1):S43–S51
  84. American Cancer Society  . Cancer Facts and Figures 2004 . Atlanta: American Cancer Society; 2004;
  85. Cox JT . Management of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia . Lancet . 1999;353:857–859
  86. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention  . Incidence of Pap test abnormalities within 3 years of a normal Pap test—United States, 1991–1998 . MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep . 2000;49:1001–1003
  87. Ferlay J , Bray F , Pisani P , Parkin DM . Globocan 2000: Cancer Incidence, Mortality and Prevalence Worldwide . Lyons, France: IARC Press; 2001;
  88. International Agency for Research on Cancer Working Group on evaluation of cervical cancer screening programmes  . Screening for squamous cervical cancer: duration of low risk after negative results of cervical cytology and its implication for screening policies . Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) . 1996;293:659–664
  89. Sasieni PD , Cuzick J , Lynch-Farmery E . Estimating the efficacy of screening by auditing smear histories of women with and without cervical cancer. The National Co-ordinating Network for Cervical Screening Working Group . Br J Cancer . 1996;73:1001–1005
  90. Lorincz AT , Richart RM . Human papillomavirus DNA testing as an adjunct to cytology in cervical screening programs . Arch Pathol Lab Med . 2003;127:959–968
  91. Nanda K, McCrory DC, Myers ER, Bastian LA, Hasselblad V, Hickey JD, et al. Accuracy of the Papanicolaou test in screening for and follow-up of cervical cytologic abnormalities: a systematic review . Ann Intern Med . 2000;132:810–819
  92. Chesson HW , Blandford JM , Gift TL , Tao G , Irwin KL . The estimated direct medical cost of sexually transmitted diseases among American youth, 2000 . Perspect Sex Reprod Health . 2004;36:11–19
  93. Saslow D , Runowicz C , Solomon D , et al. , American Cancer Society    American Cancer Society guideline for the early detection of cervical neoplasia and cancer . CA Cancer J Clin . 2002;52:342–362
  94. Morantz C , American Cancer Society  . ACS guidelines for early detection of cancer . Am Fam Physician . 2004;69:2013
  95. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists  . ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 66. Management of abnormal cervical cytology and histology . Obstet Gynecol . 2005;106:645–664
  96. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists  . ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 61. Human papillomavirus . Obstet Gynecol . 2005;105:905–918
  97. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists  . ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 45. Cervical cytology screening . Obstet Gynecol . 2003;102:417–427
  98. Wright TC , Cox JT , Massad LS , Twiggs LB , Wilkinson EJ . 2001 consensus guidelines for the management of women with cervical cytological abnormalities . JAMA . 2002;287:2120–2129
  99. Wright TC , Schiffman M , Solomon D , et al.   Interim guidance for the use of human papillomavirus DNA testing as an adjunct to cervical cytology for screening . Obstet Gynecol . 2004;103:304–309
  100. Vassilakos P , Saurel J , Rondez R . Direct-to-vial use of the AutoCyte PREP liquid-based preparation for cervical-vaginal specimens in three European laboratories . Acta Cytol . 1999;43:65–68
  101. International Agency for Research on Cancer  . IARC Handbooks of Cancer Prevention Vol 10: Cervix Cancer Screening . Lyon: IARC Press; 2005;
  102. Cuzick J , Beverley E , Ho L , et al.   HPV testing in primary screening of older women . Br J Cancer . 1999;81:554–558
  103. Cuzick J , Szarewski A , Cubie H , et al.   Management of women who test positive for high-risk types of human papillomavirus: the HART study . Lancet . 2003;362:1871–1876
  104. Franco EL , Ferenczy A . Assessing gains in diagnostic utility when human papillomavirus testing is used as an adjunct to Papanicolaou smear in the triage of women with cervical cytologic abnormalities . Am J Obstet Gynecol . 1999;181:382–386
  105. Kuhn L , Denny L , Pollack A , Lorincz A , Richart RM , Wright TC . Human papillomavirus DNA testing for cervical cancer screening in low-resource settings . J Natl Cancer Inst . 2000;92:818–825
  106. Kulasingam SL, Hughes JP, Kiviat NB, Mao C, Weiss NS, Kuypers JM, et al. Evaluation of human papillo-mavirus testing in primary screening for cervical abnormalities: comparison of sensitivity, specificity, and frequency of referral . JAMA . 2002;288:1749–1757
  107. Macaskill P , Walter SD , Irwig L , Franco EL . Assessing the gain in diagnostic performance when combining two diagnostic tests . Stat Med . 2002;21:2527–2546
  108. Sasieni P , Cuzick J . Could HPV testing become the sole primary cervical screening test? . J Med Screen . 2002;9:49–51
  109. Solomon D , Schiffman MH , Tarone R . Comparison of three management strategies for patients with atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance: baseline results from a randomized trial . J Natl Cancer Inst . 2001;93:293–299
  110. Arbyn M , Buntinx F , Van Ranst M , Paraskevaidis E , Martin-Hirsch P , Dillner J . Virologic versus cytologic triage of women with equivocal Pap smears: a meta-analysis of the accuracy to detect high-grade intraepithelial neoplasia . J Natl Cancer Inst . 2004;96:280–293
  111. ASCUS-LSIL Triage Study (ALTS) Group  . Results of a randomized trial on the management of cytology interpretations of atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance . Am J Obstet Gynecol . 2003;188:1383–1392
  112. Clavel C , Masure M , Bory JP , et al.   Human papillomavirus testing in primary screening for the detection of high-grade cervical lesions: a study of 7932 women . Br J Cancer . 2001;84:1616–1623
  113. Sherman ME , Lorincz AT , Scott DR , et al.   Baseline cytology, human papillomavirus testing, and risk for cervical neopla-sia: a 10-year cohort analysis . J Natl Cancer Inst . 2003;95:46–52
  114. Woodman CB , Collins S , Winter H , et al.   Natural history of cervical human papillomavirus infection in young women: a longitudinal cohort study . Lancet . 2001;357:1831–1836
  115. Goldie SJ , Kim JJ , Wright TC . Cost-effectiveness of human papillomavirus DNA testing for cervical cancer screening in women aged 30 years or more . Am J Obstet Gynecol . 2004;103:619–631
  116. Cox JT , Schiffman M , Solomon D , ASCUS-LSIL Triage Study (ALTS) Group  . Prospective follow-up suggests similar risk of subsequent cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 2 or 3 among women with cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 1 or negative colposcopy and directed biopsy . Am J Obstet Gynecol . 2003;188:1406–1412
  117. Cox JT . Human papillomavirus testing in primary cervical screening and abnormal Papanicolaou management . Obstet Gynecol Surv . 2006;61(6 Suppl 1):S15–S25
  118. Zhou J , Sun XY , Stenzel DJ , Frazer IH . Expression of vaccinia recombinant HPV 16 L1 and L2 ORF proteins in epithelial cells is sufficient for assembly of HPV virion-like particles . Virology . 1991;185:251–257
  119. Kirnbauer R , Booy F , Cheng N , Lowy DR , Schiller JT . Papillomavirus L1 major capsid protein self-assembles into virus-like particles that are highly immunogenic . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA . 1992;89:12180–12212
  120. Rose RC , Bonnez W , Reichman RC , Garcea RL . Expression of human papillomavirus type 11 L1 protein in insect cells: in vivo and in vitro assembly of virus-like particles . J Virol . 1993;67:1936–1944
  121. White WI , Wilson SD , Bonnez W , Rose RC , Koenig S , Suzich JA . In vitro infection and type-restricted antibody-mediated neutralization of authentic human papillo-mavirus type 16 . J Virol . 1998;72:959–964
  122. Koutsky LA , Ault KA , Wheeler CM , Brown DR , Barr E , Alvarez FB , et al.   A controlled trial of a human papillo-mavirus type 16 vaccine . N Engl J Med . 2002;347:1645–1651
  123. Villa LL , Costa RL , Petta CA , et al.   Prophylactic quadrivalent human papillomavirus (types 6, 11, 16, and 18) L1 virus-like particle vaccine in young women: a randomised double-blind placebo-controlled multicentre phase II efficacy trial . Lancet Oncol . 2005;6:271–278
  124. Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices  . ACIP provisional recommendations for the use of quadrivalent HPV vaccine . Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nip/recs/provisional_recs/hpv.pdf [Date accessed: 30 August 2006]
  125. Sanders GD , Taira AV . Cost-effectiveness of a potential vaccine for human papillomavirus . Emerging Infect Dis . 2003;9:37–48
  126. HPV vaccine fights cervical cancer . CA Cancer J Clin . 2006;56:249–250
  127. Hughes JP , Garnett GP , Koutsky L . The theoretical population-level impact of a prophylactic human papil-loma virus vaccine . Epidemiology . 2002;13:631–639
  128. Harper DM , Franco EL , Wheeler CM , et al.   Sustained efficacy up to 4.5 years of a bivalent L1 virus-like particle vaccine against human papillomavirus types 16 and 18: follow-up from a randomised control trial . Lancet . 2006;367:1247–1255
  129. Mao C , Koutsky LA , Ault KA , et al.   Efficacy of human papillomavirus-16 vaccine to prevent cervical intraepithe-lial neoplasia: a randomized controlled trial . Obstet Gynecol . 2006;107:18–27
  130. Goldie SJ , Grima D , Kohli M , Wright TC , Weinstein M , Franco E . A comprehensive natural history model of HPV infection and cervical cancer to estimate the clinical impact of a prophylactic HPV-16/18 vaccine . Int J Cancer . 2003;106:896–904
  131. Harro CD , Pang YY , Roden RB , et al.   Safety and immuno-genicity trial in adult volunteers of a human papillo-mavirus 16 L1 virus-like particle vaccine . J Natl Cancer Inst . 2001;93:284–292
  132. Schiller JT , Lowy DR . Prospects for cervical cancer prevention by human papillomavirus vaccination . Cancer Res . 2006;66:10229–10232

PII: S1028-4559(08)60004-2

doi:10.1016/S1028-4559(08)60004-2

Taiwanese Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology
Volume 46, Issue 4 , Pages 352-362, December 2007

Article Tools